© Carlos Sánchez-Montaña
Lucus Asturum,
"Their traditional place in Lugo de Llanera has found no archaeological confirmation date complete." Narciso Santos Yanguas, "Asturias, Asturian and the Roman administration during the High Empire" 2009
"Asturum Lucus was the former name of Oviedo." Erich
Richthofen. New studies medieval epic. 1970
Plano de Oviedo (1777)
Francisco reproduction by Reiter and Elze (Oviedo, October 22, 1736 - 1815) Lucus ASTURUM
Ptolemy in his Geographica, (II, 6 , 28-37) is the first mentioned the site of Lucus Asturum. He is considered as the main administrative center in the Northern Territory Roman convent of Asturian in Asturias Trasmontana. The Anonymous of Ravenna in Cosmographia also mentioned as enclaves as Asturum Luco.
This territory was inhabited by luggones and was the hub and crossroads of the Roman cities of Lugo, Gijón, León and Astorga.
is not known with certainty the actual location of Lucus Asturum, most researchers and scholars as emplaced near Lugo de Llanera, where he has appeared an altar dedicated to the Lares Road. The different archaeological excavations in the vicinity of Santa Maria Lugo Llanera have not been successful. Lucus Asturum refuses to be found and lack of scientific certainty to identify new campaigns with some chance of success. Lucus Asturum seems to have been destroyed so that neither its foundations can be recognized today by investigators. What
army, and with what means, could achieve total destruction of the main enclave of luggones? Lucus
A "lucus" in Latin, is a term that originally determined a clearing in the dense forest in which lived a god. This term later evolved and was also used to name the temples and cities, housed in an existing forest, were built as a shrine to a chosen deity. The Latin form lucus coined the boundaries of a sacred concept. Lucus is the romanization of the concept comes from the Sanskrit sloka, as the definition of areas or states identified in the invisible world, the sacred, spiritual, communication with the divinity, onfhalos, and oracles.
loka derived from many other words that participate in any of these concepts Sanskrit. For example, locus, which is held; lucus, which is sacred grove, or loggia, which translates as a meeting place, is only partial, it has more kinship to lochia, talk, and locus, place and in any case is a synthesis of the two: "place to talk." The word today can bring us closer to the true meaning of the original term is the secular "booth" which today unites both meanings: "place to talk." lucus The word is that in Rome the first century BC, designating the place where there was contact with God and that, originally, was a clearing in the forest interior, under the sky and surrounded by trees that sustain imagination, producing an intimate conversation with God.
The lucus, therefore, is the natural history of a temple, the prototypical image of temple built by man as a holy place, the image of lucus in the forest, amid the forest. Lucus
Asturum belongs to a very special group of enclaves of Roman origin which are called sacred,
Lucus Augusti Lucus Feroniae
and
are other cities that can afford to draw any conclusions about how it could be the Asturian enclave.
addition to further this work we assume that Lucus Asturum should be closely related in their genesis with the main sites with which we were sent: Lucus Augusti, Legio, Astúrica Augusta and its chronology, Bracara Augusta.
SEE
Bracara
Augusta,
Lucus Augusti, Augusta Astúrica
, Legio
propose that these sites shared with Lucus Asturum same technical team of urban design, and therefore they all have similar solutions and resources , and can be recognized as urban elements of the different settlements. Starting
then these references: a foundation of sacred and related to the main sites of northwestern peninsular, sponsored by Augustus, we make the following assumptions on urban characteristics Asturum Lucus. Twelve
arguments to recognize the holy city of Luggones. 2) The site was newly built and according to Roman urbanism. 3) The geometry determined the project's urban enclave. 4) The access roads were related to the main communication routes of the surrounding territory and the main sites from neighboring areas. 5) The access roads are related to the inner city streets. 6) The enclave had engineering works for water supply. 7) The enclave had places of worship, at least one major and important. 8) The enclave had meeting places inside. 9) the enclave had places of worship on its outer perimeter. 10) The enclave had entertainment buildings and places of exercise on its outer perimeter.
12) During the Middle Ages remain as political and religious capital of the territory to which they belong.
The reader will have already drawn their own conclusions about the location in the territory of Asturias Trasmontana met, and by far the twelve conditions above. Lucus
Asturum could only sited in the "high place" is now called Oviedo, known as "Old Oviedo.
A Oviedo before San Vicente?
• Ruins of Oviedo primitirvo. José M ª Fernandez Buelta - 1948
•-Excavations at the Oviedo house. José M ª Fernandez Buelta - 1950
not the first time an identification document notes Lucus Asturum with Oviedo:
"This aspect is of particular interest to note the discovery of the invention of the episcopal see of Lucus Asturum identifying it with Oviedo, already clear in the notepad of Juan Antonio. It analyzes a series of false documents stating the identification Lucus Asturum-Oviedo as the mainspring of Don Pelayo. "
(Pelayo, bishop of Oviedo, elected 1101, deposed in 1130. He died on January 28, 1153.)
History, privileges and political attitudes: Mayans and historiography of the 18 "Antonio Mestre, Antonio Mestre Antonio Mestre Sanchis
"The various authors hipercriticismo bore the blame on the work of historiography Pelayo, disregarding him as a liar, interpolator fabulous and so is not always justified. The work has become more famous Bishop Pelayo has been the Book Testaments of Oviedo where the prelate collected all documents relating to the status, history and possessions of the diocese. "
Encyclopedia of Oviedo.
"Asturum Lucus was the former name of Oviedo." Erich
Richthofen. New studies medieval epic - Page 211 Editorial Gredos, 1970. From the University of California
propose to go, one by one, the twelve arguments that help us recognize the site of Lucus Asturum and contrast with the hypothesis of the place of Oviedo and the holy city of luggones. TRAVEL
ASTURUM Lucus
1) The site is located in a favorable location on a promontory.
Oviedo, analogous to Lugo, Astorga, Leon Braga, sits on a promontory that favors the defense, and the runoff of rainwater and dirty.
This is the actual geographical location of a Roman oppidum (from the Latin oppidum n., pl. Oppida: high place, fortification), a type of fortified oppidum surrounded by a wall on top of a hill and has type buildings Roman and Indian. The oppida were established, generally, for the domain of land suitable for cultivation or as bunker.
Oviedo is an example of town on the promontory nodal implementation in a vast system of promontories.
2) The location was new plant and According to Roman urbanism.
The excavations in the Roman cities of NO have identified the urban project and its geometric characteristics, these are similar in their willingness to which some still have the key urban elements of the old town of Oviedo. In Oviedo, in the city today, as in old maps, you can recognize many of the elements of Roman urbanism that has been in the form of the city: its streets orthogonal, the location of the temples, the imperial city wall under , its gates and the castle, even the traces of the missing amphitheater or "Field of Mars."
View: Oviedo Roman a possible project
3) The geometry determined the project's urban enclave.
After analyzing the mapping of Oviedo, and documentation that reflects recent archaeological sites, hypothesize that the original draft of Oviedo had a square base formed by a grid of 8x8 modules of 108 cubits each, and with a total size of 864x864 sides of elbows, (aprx: 383x383 m). The base module (108 cubits) was used in many Roman foundations, including the soles of Lucus Augusti, Asturian or Bracco. As in other Roman cities NO, in Oviedo can describe the apparent parallelism of the historic streets in two orthogonal directions oriented north-south and east-west.
Similarly, from a geometric analysis, one can draw conclusions about the shape of the wall under imperial and location of the temples.
Roman cities, such as Vitruvius established, were an exact geometric exercise.
4) The access roads were related to the main communication routes of the surrounding territory and major enclaves in neighboring territories.
The boundaries of the old town, marked by crosses of different roads to Oviedo and located outside the walls coincide with the main roads. The south to Leon in the north to Gijon and Aviles, on the West to the East Grade and to Cangas.
Oviedo is located in a communication node NATURAL
These four main routes begin at the gates of the city aimed at the four cardinal points.
5) The access roads are related to the inner city streets.
Overlaying the basic outlines of the existing old town of Oviedo on the different mapping of the twentieth century can check the fit of the Roman city streets with access roads to it, and the lettering twenty centuries later. Oppidum
The original project ran from west to east from the intersection gives the street of San Francisco and Calle Ramón y Cajal to the intersection of San Benito Street to Paradise Street and north to south from Eagle Street at its intersection with Avenida Jovellanos to cross the street from the Mon to the Plaza del Sol
The decumanus was well established approximately on the axis of the present streets of San Francisco, Eusebio Gonzalez Abascal, and San Benito and the thistle on the streets of Eagle, Santa Ana and Mon.
Oviedo (1777) - Francisco Reiter
The perimeter wall would occupy the current round of Jovellanos, El Paraíso, El Postigo Alto, Plaza del Sol, Plaza de la Constitution, The Weight, Plaza del Riego, calle Ramón y Cajal, and Mendizabal. This wall of Roman design was rebuilt in medieval times. After twenty centuries many of the roads and buildings in the city are a reflection of Oviedo Roman path at the time of implantation. The overlap of the old layout on the current mapping allows verification of the oldest roads.
6) The enclave had engineering works for water supply.
The cities of Roman origin have NO engineering that meet the needs of potable water for consumption by the resident population. Whether through aqueducts outside the city, either by withdrawal inside sources.
In the case of Oviedo has been a constant, since ancient times, the uptake of water in natural springs located in altitude on Mount Naranco, formerly Danyllí.
In Roman aqueduct in
tore Paniceres
San Lazaro, four km from Oviedo, heading toward the nearby Field of the church of the Madeleine, with a track next to the existing streets of M. Pedregal, Nueve de Mayo, Cavel, Santa Clara and the Moon, and then access the "Water Castle" located in the NW corner of the city, and close to the door of Santiago, which was the site of the old castle. From this point, and now intramural water was distributed across all the sources of the city.
1-AQUEDUCT,
Vitruvius wrote:
"Arriving in the city, construct the water tower, and three receptacles attached to it: put on the ark three equidistant pipes that discharge water into receptacles, and these have mutual communication, so that the remaining water to the sides contributes to the environment. This will leave the pipes to the lakes and fountains, the second for the bathrooms, that the city draws its own, and third for private homes. This is not abate the public, taking their particular through from the ark. I make this distribution of containers, so that individuals that conduct water to their homes, paying landlords the right to take custody their pipes. "
Similarly is described in the case of Oviedo in medieval times in the pag. 491 of the text "Alfonso II the Chaste," Constantino Cabal. Oviedo: GEA, 1991
catchment system, water supply, plumbing ark and was analogous to the already recognized and studied in the sister city of Lucus Augusti.
7) The enclave had places of worship, at least one major and important.
there on the hill of Oveto two buildings at the plant Roman structure presented 5 / 6 of Tuscan temples Vitruvius: San Salvador and San Tirso. Carlos Sánchez-Montaña
"Juliane De Lares." Article on the influence of Roman architecture in the works of Romanesque Asturian
Is Oviedo Cathedral stands on an ancient temple to Jupiter? Possibly yes. The building occupied the area of \u200b\u200bhigher altitude within the precincts of the oppidum and keep alignment related to the geometric design described above.
was the temple dedicated to Jupiter the main place in front of the forum in Roman cities. Vitruvius writes: "The solar sanctuaries tutelary gods of the city and for Jupiter, Juno and Minerva elíjanse in a sufficiently high where it can be seen most of the city. "
are several cathedrals in Europe have been built on the foundations of a temple Jupiter. (Santiago de Compostela, Paris, Tarragona).
And in the Santa House where Alfonso II puts his wealth of Roman jewelry.
PLANTS - San Salvador and San Tirso San Tirso
The Church of San Tirso de Oviedo Real was built by Alfonso II between 791 to 842. The temple belonged to a group of church buildings and palaces, now disappeared, built in the early eleventh century. Originated settings only kept the headwall, with a window divided into three spaces by two columns and the bottom of the tower. The rest of the church has undergone several reforms.
SAN TIRSO - OVIEDO
Roman Soldier III century AD who lived in Apollonia.
The center of the urban area as defined in previous lines geometrically determines a place of powerful symbolism. The center of Roman Oviedo, the place where the two main crossing is well located in the current eastern end wall facing the church of San Tirso. This place now built and occupied by altar of the church, and that in ancient times was outside the building, and was the entrance of the temple facing east Roman, Tuscan plant, and possibly was the basis of the medieval building.
Santa Maria Church of Santa Maria de Oviedo was a church, now defunct, located within the complex formed by the Church of San Salvador, the original Church of San Tirso and the church of Santa Leocadia. Temple construction was ordered by Alfonso II el Casto in the ninth century in the construction of buildings mentioned above. Located on the north side of the church of San Salvador. It was a three-aisled basilica with six arches articulated sections semicircular, rectangular triple header with blind arches. This provision does accurately as stipulated in the Roman temples Tuscan plant described by Vitruvius.
The cult of Isis, goddess of fertility and fortune, chief of the towns of Asturias and Gallaecia. In the capitals of the three convents, distinctly agricultural, this goddess guarantee good harvests and fertility to his devotees.
We can safely say that Isis occupied a central place in religious worship of the inhabitants of the convents of NO
There are clear references to the goddess Isis in the modern cities of Roman origin NOT found in the cathedral temple dedicated Santa Maria, Braga and Lugo, evidence of worship of the goddess of Egyptian origin.
See: Carlos Sánchez-Montaña "Isis in Gallaecia" 8) The enclave had meeting places inside.
NO Roman cities had in their indoor public spaces and buildings of meeting forums and basilicas. Oviedo has not been excavated so far none of these elements of Roman origin, but the current old has spaces that are sorted according to the characteristics of Roman urbanism.
The recent emergence of a source and a Roman causeway at Rua suggests that under medieval city remains the Roman city. Common and already proven in the other major Roman cities of NO
9) the enclave had places of worship on its outer perimeter.
San Julián de Prados
His exact date of construction has not come down to us, but we know that its construction was ordered by Alfonso II. The temple is dedicated to the Holy Martyrs Julian and Basilisa Egyptians and became the ninth century.
THE LOCATION OF SAN JULIAN SAN SALVADOR EARLY TO San Julian de Prados is located on the city of Oviedo in a similar way to San Julian in Lugo.
architectural analysis of both temples, and its comparison with the Vitruvian Tuscan temple plant, suggests that in this case the Romanesque buildings were built using the existing foundation of an ancient Roman temple, Tuscan plant, located at the crossroads roads. The two constructions, in Lugo and Oviedo, they decided to change direction from east to west, according to the new Christian rite, and the addition of auxiliaries in their facades to obtain a cruise.
View:
Juliane De Lares. Article on the influence of Roman architecture in the works of Romanesque Asturian
Foncalada Foncalada The source is an old pedra formosa "reused in medieval times. Its position regarding access to the ancient city is similar to all buildings of this type, especially with the building Bracara found in Augusta, the current Portuguese city of Braga.
The building is situated at a height half-buried on a slope, so that its front is more exposed than the rear, while this provision allows access from the front and by a natural ramp can reach the level top of the building.
The Foncalada for its architecture and its location on the oppidum of Oviedo can be classified as a Pedra Formosa High Imperial period.
View: Roman Oviedo, a project may
10) The enclave had entertainment buildings on its outer perimeter.
"Out of the city were the suburbs Campo, Fontan, Santa Maria de la Vega, Rosal, Tobacconists old and new, Foncalada, Santa Clara, and San Francisco."
The urban form of Oviedo in the first third of the sixteenth century. Margarita QUARTERS RIVERO
These space outside the walls, known as slums are developing the land where the successive enlargements imperial rise buildings entertainment and exercise. hypothesized that determines the Roman amphitheater in Oviedo stood in the suburb known for Fontan. This site is about the city of Oviedo (position SO) analogous to the position of the amphitheaters of the Roman cities of the study reference. The Roman amphitheatres Lugo, León Astorga and Braga is located at a distance and orientation similar to the position of the Fontan connection to the urban area of \u200b\u200bOviedo.
Amphitheater León, similar site which the Fontan
The amphitheater was located outside the city, on the facade OS on the access road to the main gate of the city, which communicated directly with the route from Legio. On August 19, 1523 the City council and the council decided to drain the Fontan to be a source of infection and there have drowned several people work on drying not culminate until 1559 then built a fountain and a sink, which apparently tried to move to the Plaza Mayor in 1600, and other public infrastructure. Encyclopedia of Oviedo
POSITION OF BUILDING IN
FONTAN Experts say that by its nature amphitheaters have a large sewer for the disposal of rainwater. In the amphitheater of Merida can check for the overall building sewer in place coincident with the minor axis of the building. In the case of Astorga and Lugo sewer is even today in the same position, starting from the central area of \u200b\u200bthe sand and channeled to the outside of rainwater. In Lugo the collector receives water from the city decumano maximum, producing an upwelling of a small creek in the area.
In Oviedo, the result has been that throughout history the source of stormwater from this equipment, the general collector of the amphitheater, has produced over time the outcrop to the outside of a hydraulic advantage in the area where it rose. The call and Fontan. attached mapping in the nineteenth century can be seen free urban space that was occupied by the amphitheater in ancient times.
Campus Martius
hypothesized that determines the Champ de Mars in the Roman city of Oviedo was raised in the suburb known as the Country.
This position is analogous to the position that the Campus Martius of Lucus Augusti had with the city. The military nature and dedicated to Mars that Vitruvius in treaty on the city: "... and to Mars giving his temple outside the city, there will be no wars or civil strife, it will first be defended from its enemies, and free from the dangers of war.."
In Oviedo the Champ de Mars was in the front N.NO. of the city, was formed by a concourse dedicated to the god of war. Occupied the space between the existing streets Uria, San Francisco and Santa Clara. From the city reached the Campo de Marte by a north door, called the Puerta de Santiago, located near the intersection of current and Arguelles Luna Street. Pelayo Street
The current passing through the interior of the former Campo de Marte, later known as Magdalena del Campo. This name is due to a hermitage, who disappeared in 1830 which stood at the entrance to Pelayo, close to where he was the jail-Galera, upper edge of the Escandalera, which was then part of the Campo San Francisco. Today its site is occupied by the building of the Savings Bank.
front of the temple there was a clearing in which, from dates prior to 1274, as inferred from the bylaws of the year, markets were held, and until just over a hundred years, the militias were conducting military exercises and stops in the ancient Campus Martius. In the nineteenth century attached map can be seen free urban space that was occupied by the Campus Martius in ancient times.
The wall is now known, and analogous to the walls of the four main Roman cities of NO, was built in the Lower Empire, and as if in Oviedo mean a transformation of the high imperial city. The walls under imperial
meant in all cases studied the transformation of urban areas, this variation is based on the construction of a new urban element which is governed by a different geometry to the original geometric patterns.
WALL RISES ON AN ACTUAL octagonal
The plant's original location, so the table is built by a new fence octagonal. This form of irregular octagon can be recognized even today in the city today and is common in Roman cities (eg Barcino).
Paradise Street At low Imperial near the doors opened that reported on urban roads with access roads.
"It opened it doors Socastiello, Santiago, Gascon, Noceda, Foundry and Cimadevilla, between the Noceda and Cimadevilla was the wicket of Rule. From Cimadevilla door, located at the southern end of the street of the same name the wall was parallel to the current Calle del Sol, to the door of the Forge, end of the current street Mon, hence, by Postigo Alto and Paradise Street, which is maintained until the gate Noceda, beginning of the current San Vicente Street, was next to the monastery of San Pelayo (Calle de la Cerca, Jovellanos today), after which opened the door of the Eagle Gascon-street-and beyond, at the junction of the present streets of Jovellanos and Arguelles, the door of Santiago or San Juan, to reach the castle, bent and took the street today Mendizabal, which opened the door Socastiello, also called the Country, from here, Ramón y Cajal and Calle del Peso, would end at the door of Cimadevilla. "
The urban form of Oviedo in the first third of the sixteenth century. QUARTERS Margarita Rivero
This description and according to the study of other walls Roman gates I may venture the hypothesis that the wall of Oviedo had six gates, which allow the passage width of carriage: at the ends of the cardo maximus: Gascon and Ironworks. On the western edge of the maximum decumanu: Socastelo. In addition to serial ports NE output: Noceda and NO: Santiago, and it was SO: Cimadevilla. The flap called the Rule was a postern or gate for pedestrian use, it was probably similar to other the same characteristics in parts of the wall, and interior streets to coincide with high imperial city. The fence could have a total of six shutters. View: The walls of Asturias et Gallaecia
12) During the Middle Ages remain as political and religious capital of the territory to which they belong. In turn, this is a direct consequence of its religious significance in ancient times. Lucus Asturum conveys the religious capital of pagan character of the Christian Episcopal. Just as the rest of the capitals of their environment.
The historical continuity of the main settlements of NO can understand their important role as centers of power. Enlarge with:
"The name Oviedo is it a theonym?"
, ESCOBAR GARCIA, F. (1974): BIDEA 82, p. 375-400. CONCLUSIONS
A scorched earth policy which was also was practiced in Lugo Galicia. Odoario When Bishop arrives in town of Luco to be recast in the order of Alfonso II, medieval written sources state that the Roman site of Lucus Augusti was nothing left standing.
But today we know that an important part of the city, and the walls of his monumental wall, remained raised in the eighth century, and can ensure that urban destruction, the sources provide only seek to promote a relaunch of the old religious enclave of pagan origin, as a new bishopric.
Bishop Pelayo has been reviled for centuries, and today too, just to defend the former bishopric of Lucus Asturum identifying it with Oviedo.
Lucus is the identification
-Oviedo Asturum the mainspring of Don Pelayo in his writings, and the documentation before the bishop, as stated in documents of the Monastery of S. Vicente, confirming the existence of "carriers civitatis" or door of the city of Lugo, "antiquissima civitas" or "civitas in diebus sempiternis ", ie ancient city. The urban form of historic cities is the result of the superposition of the reality of its inhabitants for centuries, this process results in a complex performance board and ambiguity that makes it extremely difficult methodological analysis of urban form in the historical periods . The maps, engravings, historical literature, while the current map overlay with the archaeological and documented, allows searching for something intangible but mainly: the project of the city, rules that made the project in time determined the shape of the city. After analyzing the mapping of Oviedo, and documentation that reflects recent archaeological sites, hypothesize that the original draft of Lucus Asturum followed the same pattern as the other cities sponsored by Augustus, and a study of NO cities, especially Lucus Augusti, Astúrica Augusta, Legio, and Bracara Augusta., and taking into account the cultural and historical similarities, allowing for better understanding of the possibilities of the hypothesis presented.
"Read the building structure means understanding, using software tools, the structure of space that anthropic characterizes the space field, in other words to understand the components of a structured set by man. "" types of building: Space Structure
Gian Luigi Maffei Anthropic, Gianfranco Caniggia (Celeste Ediciones, SA) 1995
urban language Roman city described by Vitruvius has an encoding that reached a certain environment space and time. References are materials that can be read, understood, in full coherence of the components that characterize it. The buildings, streets, access roads, but also geometric and spatial relationships between them, their aggregate, the urban and relationship with the territory where it is located.
Uncertainty about the location of the city of Lucus Asturum can be determined logically by the presence in the neighboring territories of contemporary cities that maintained relations with the patent. We can observe the existence of aspects in the provision of each of the urban elements that make up the ancient and recognized enclaves in cartography, ancient and modern, the city of Oviedo.
The work presented here tries to solve, and provide material body, set for a long time discarded unimaginable that Asturum Lucus was the old and forgotten name of the Roman city known by the name of Oviedo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
--------------------------------------
Oviedo Encyclopedia Margarita QUARTERS RIVERO
The urban form of Oviedo in the first third of the sixteenth century
Gian Luigi Maffei
; Gianfranco Caniggia
building typologies: Anthropic Space Structure. (Celeste Ediciones, SA) 1995
Antonio Mestre, Antonio Mestre Antonio Mestre Sanchis,
History, privileges and political attitudes: Mayans and historiography of the 18 "
Published by Universitat de València, 2001 Yanguas Narciso Santos,
" Asturias, Asturian and administration Rome during the High Empire "2009
ESCOBAR GARCIA, F. (1974):
" The name Oviedo is it a theonym? "
, BIDEA 82, p. 375-400.
José Vicente González García. "The Bishop Don Pelayo, the key to the study of the history of Asturias." Basilisk, Number 8, July-December 1979 Zanker
. Paul "Augustus and the power of images" Alianza Editorial. As a guide to jewelry Asturian treasure there similar images related to the Emperor Augustus of special significance.
Carvallo, Luis Alfonso de. Antiques and memorabilia of the Principality of Asturias. Piñol
05/01/2006.
Sanchez-Mountain. Carlos
Lucus Augusti. The holy city of Augusto Constantino Cabal
. "Alfonso II El Casto" Asturian Publishing Group P. Grimal (1956) "Roman cities," Vergara Editorial, Barcelona
Sánchez-Montaña. Carlos Juliane De Lares. Article on the influence of Roman architecture in the works of Romanesque Asturian
Sánchez-Montaña. Carlos Augusto
The Seal of the Cruz de los Angeles
Marquis. Mercedes. New Spain
Interview with Carmen Fernández Ochoa, Professor Archaeology of the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid
Sánchez-Montaña. Carlos
PEDRAS FORMS - ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT CALLAECIA
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